Remote sensing and mathematical modelling of Lake Vostok, East Antarctica: past, present and future research

The paper presents a review of the studies carried out in the area of the subglacial Lake Vostok (East Antarctica) to date. They include geophysical, glaciological, geodesic, and geological investigations. The most important geophysical investigations were carried out by the Polar Marine Geosurvey Expedition. They included reflection and refraction seismic, and also radio-echo sounding. The major contribution to the study of this region was made by American researchers, who in the 2000/01 field season performed a complex airborne geophysical survey on a regular network. Their work included magnetometric, gravimetric, and radio-echo sounding measurements. All the research conducted found that the water surface area is 15 790 km², and its altitudinal height changes from –600 to –150 m. The average depth of Lake Vostok is 400 m, and the maximum marks reach 1 200 m. The water body volume is estimated at 6 100 km³. There are 11 islands in the lake, and their total area is 365 km². In addition, 56 isolated subglacial water bodies were found around the lake. A special section is devoted to a review of mathematical models of heat and mass transfer processes in the glacier and water movement in Lake Vostok.

1. Ridley J.K., Cudlip W., Laxon S.W. Identification of subglacial lakes using ERS-1 radar altimeter. Journal of Glaciology 1993;39(133):625–634. https://doi.org/10.3189/S002214300001652X

2. Kapitza A.P., Ridley J.K., Robin G.d.Q., Siegert M.J., Zotikov I.A. A large deep freshwater lake beneath the ice of central East Antarctica. Nature. 1996;381(6584):684–686. https://doi.org/10.1038/381684a0

3. Lukin V.V. A way to Lake Vostok studies is now open. Problemy Arktiki i Antarktiki = Arctic and Antarctic Research. 2012;1(91):5–19. (In Russ.)

4. Zotikov I.A. Thermal regime of the glacier of Central Antarctica. Antarctica. Commission reports. 1961. Moscow: Nauka; 1962. P. 27–40. (In Russ.)

5. Zotikov I.A. Bottom melting in the central zone of the ice shield on the Antarctic continent and its influence upon the present balance of the ice mass. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 1963;8(1):36–44.

6. Zotikov I.A. About temperatures in the glacier of Antarctica. Antarctic. 1963; 61–105. (In Russ.)

7. Robin G.Q. Ice movement and temperature distribution in glaciers and ice sheets. Journal of Glaciology. 1955; 2(18):523–532.

8. Robin G.Q., Swithinbank C.W.M., Smith B.M.E. Radio echo exploration of the Antarctic ice sheet. In: Gow A.J., Keeler C., Langway C.C., Weeks W.F. (eds.) International Symposium on Antarctic Glaciological Exploration (ISAGE), Hanover, New Hampshire, 3–7 September 1968. Gentbrugge; International Association of Scientific Hydrology; 1968. P. 97–115.

9. Livingstone S.J., Li Y., Rutishauser A., Sanderson R.J., Winter K., Mikucki J.A., Björnsson H., Bowling J.S., Boiling J.S., Chu W., Dow C.F., Fricker H.A., McMillan M., Ng F., Ross N., Siegert M., Siegfried M., Sole A.J. Subglacial lakes and their changing role in a warming climate. Nature Reviews Earth and Environment. 2022;3(2):106–124.

10. Popov S.V., Masolov V.N., Lukin V.V., Popkov A.M. National seismic, radar and seismological studies of subglacial Lake Vostok. Ice and Snow. 2012;52(4):31–38. https://doi.org/10.15356/2076-6734-2012-4-31-38

11. Kapitsa A.P. New data on the thickness of the Central Antarctic ice sheet. Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition. 1960;19:10–15. (In Russ.)

12. Kapitsa A.P. The relief of the ice sheet and subglacial bed of Antarctica. Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition. 1966;58:5–12. (In Russ.)

13. Kapitsa A.P., Sorokhtin O.G. Measurements of the thickness of the ice sheet during the hike along the route Vostok — Molodyozhnaya. Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition. 1965;51: 19–23. (In Russ.)

14. Robin G.Q., Drewry D.J., Meldrum D.T. International studies of ice sheet and bedrock. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences. 1977;279(963):185–196.

15. Popov S.V. Six decades of radar and seismic research in Antarctica. Ice and Snow. 2021;61(4):587– 619. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.31857/S2076673421040110

16. Popov S. Fifty-five years of Russian radio-echo sounding investigations in Antarctica. Annals of Glaciology. 2020;61(81):14–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2020.4

17. Averyanov V.G. Ten years of Vostok Station. Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition. 1968;69:5–8. (In Russ.)

18. Vasiliev N.I., Talalay P.G., Bobin N.E., Chistyakov V.K., Zubkov V.M., Krasilev A.V., Dmitriev A.N., Yankilevich S.V., Lipenkov V.Y. Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events. Annals of Glaciology. 2007;47:10–23. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756407786857776

19. Lipenkov V. Ya, Barkov N.I., Salamatin A.N. The history of climate and glaciation of Antarctica based on the results of studying the ice core from Vostok Station. Reports of the Academy of Sciences. 2000;72:197–236. (In Russ.)

20. Leitchenkov G.L., Bialiatsky B.V., Popkov А.М., Popov S.V. Geological nature of the subglacial Lake Vostok in East Antarctica. Materialy Glyatsiologicheskikh Issledovaniy = Data of Glaciological Studies. 2005;98:81–91. (In Russ.)

21. Liebert J., Leonhardt G. Astronomical observations to determine the movement of the ice sheet in the area of Vostok station. Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition. 1974;88:68–70. (In Russ.)

22. Richter A., Fedorov D.V., Fritsche M., Popov S.V., Lipenkov V. Ya., Ekaykin A.A., Lukin V.V., Matveev A.Yu., Grebnev V.P., Rosenau R., Dietrich R. Ice flow velocities over Vostok Subglacial Lake, East Antarctica, determined by 10 years of GNSS observations. Journal of Glaciology. 2013;59(214):315–326. https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JoG12J056

23. Lipenkov V.Y., Ekaykin A.A., Polyakova E.V., Raynaud D. Characterization of subglacial Lake Vostok as seen from physical and isotope properties of accreted ice. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 2016;374:20140303. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0303

24. Leitchenkov G.L., Antonov A.V., Luneov P.I., Lipenkov V.Y. Geology and environments of subglacial Lake Vostok. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 2016;374(2059):20140302. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0302

25. Tabacco I.E., Bianchi C., Zirizzotti A., Zuccheretti E., Forieri A., Della Vedova A. Airborne radar survey above Vostok region, east Antarctica: ice thickness and VSL geometry. Journal of Glaciology. 2002;48(160):62–69. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756502781831656

26. Cui X., Jeofry H., Greenbaum J.S., Guo J., Li L., Lindzey L.E., Habbal F.A., Wei W., Young D.A., Ross N., Morlighem M., Jong L.M., Roberts J.L., Blankenship D., Sun B., Siegert M. Bed topography of princess Elizabeth land in East Antarctica. Earth System Science Data. 2020;12(4):2765–2774. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2765-2020

27. Cui X. Greenbaum J., Lang S., Zhao X., Li L., Guo J., Sun B. The Scientific operations of Snow Eagle 601 in Antarctica in the past five austral seasons. Remote Sensing. 2020;12(18):2994. https:// doi.org/10.3390/rs12182994

28. Cui X., Lang S., Guo J., Sun B. Detecting and searching for subglacial lakes through airborne radio-echo sounding in Princess Elizabeth Land (PEL), Antarctica. E3S Web Conf. 2020;163:04002. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202016304002

29. Studinger M., Karner G.D., Bell R., Levin V., Raymond C.A., Tikku A.A. Geophysical models for the tectonic frameworks of the Lake Vostok region, East Antarctica. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2003;216:663–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00548-X

30. Studinger M., Bell R., Karner G.D., Tikku A.A., Holt J.W., Morse D.L., Richter T.G., Kempf S.D., Peters M.E., Blankenship D.D., Sweeney R.E., Rystrom V.L. Ice cover, landscape setting and geological framework of Lake Vostok, East Antarctica. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2003;205:195–210.

31. Mandrikova D.V., Lipenkov V.Ya., Popov S.V. The structure of the ice sheet in the region of Lake Vostok (East Antarctica) according to radar profiling data. Materialy Glyatsiologicheskikh Issledovaniy = Data of Glaciological Studies. 2005;98:65–72. (In Russ.)

32. Tikku A.A., Bell R.E., Studinger M., Clarke G.K.C. Ice flow field over Lake Vostok, East Antarctica inferred by structure tracking. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2004;227:249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.09.021

33. Masolov V.N., Popov S.V., Lukin V.V., Popkov A.M. The bottom topography and subglacial Lake Vostok water body, East Antarctica. Doklady Earth Sciences. 2010;433(2):1092–1097.

34. Smith B.E., Fricker H.A., Joughin I.R., Tulaczyk S. An inventory of active subglacial lakes in Antarctica detected by ICESat (2003–2008). Journal of Glaciology. 2009;55(192):573–595. https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309789470879

35. Popov S.V., Lunev P.I. Orography of the bedrock relief of subglacial Lake Vostok and its vicinity (East Antarctic). Geomorfologiya. 2012;1:81–92. (In Russ.)

36. Leychenkov G.I., Popkov A.M. Predicted sedimentary section of subglacial Lake Vostok. Ice and Snow. 2012;52(4):21–30. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.15356/2076-6734-2012-4-21-30

37. Ferraccioli F., Finn C.A., Jordan T.A., Bell R.E., Anderson L.M., Damaske D. East Antarctic rifting triggers uplift of the Gamburtsev Mountains. Nature. 2011;479(7373):388–392. https://doi/org/10.1038/nature10566

38. Isanina E.V., Krupnova N.A., Popov S.V., Masolov V.N., Lukin V.V. Deep structure of the Vostok Basin, East Antarctica as deduced from seismological observations. Geotectonics. 2009;43(3):221– 225. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852109030042

39. Bulat S.A., Alekhina I.A., Blot M., Petit J.-R., de Angelis M., Wagenbach D., Lipenkov V.Ya., Vasilyeva L.P., Wloch D.M., Raynaud D. DNA signature of thermophilic bacteria from the aged accretion ice of Lake Vostok, Antarctica: implications for searching for life in extreme icy environments. International Journal of Astrobiology. 2004;3(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1473550404001879

40. Lavire C., Normand P., Alekhina I., Bulat S., Prieur D., Birrien J.L., Fournier P., Hanni C., Petit J.-R. Presence of Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus DNA in accretion ice in the subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica, assessed using rrs, cbb and hox. Environmental Microbiology. 2006;8(12):2106–2114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01087.x

41. Wendt J., Dietrich R., Fritsche M., Wendt A., Yuskevich A., Kokhanov A., Senatorov A., Lukin V., Shibuya K., Doi K. Geodetic observations of ice flow velocities over the southern part of subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica, and their glaciological implications. Geophysical Journal International. 2006;166(3):991–998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03061.x

42. Wendt A., Dietrich R., Wendt J., Fritsche M., Lukin V., Yuskevich A., Kokhanov A., Senatorov A., Lukin V., Shibuya K., Doi K. The response of the subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica, to tidal and atmospheric pressure forcing. Geophysical Journal International. 2005;161(1):41–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02575.x

43. Richter A., Popov S.V., Dietrich R., Lukin V.V., Fritsche M., Lipenkov V.Y., Matveev A.Y., Wendt J., Yuskevich A.V., Masolov V.N. Observational evidence on the stability of the hydroglaciological regime of subglacial Lake Vostok. Geophysical Research Letters 2008;35(11): L11502. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033397

44. Richter A., Popov S.V., Schröder L., Schwabe J., Ewert H., Scheinert M., Horwath M., Dietrich R. Subglacial Lake Vostok not expected to discharge water. Geophysical Research Letters. 2014;41:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL061433

45. Gray L., Joughin I., Tulaczyk S., Spikes V.B., Bindschadler R. Jezek K. Evidence for subglacial water transport in the West Antarctic Ice Sheet through three-dimensional satellite radar interferometry. Geophysical Research Letters. 2005;32(3):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021387

46. Wingham D.J., Siegert M.J., Shepherd A., Muir A.S. Rapid discharge connects Antarctic subglacial lakes. Nature. 2006;440(7087):1033–1036. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04660

47. Wüest A., Carmack E. A priori estimates of mixing and circulation in the hard-to-reach water body of Lake Vostok. Ocean Modelling. 2000;2(1–2):29–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/s14635003(00)00007-x

48. Williams M.J.M.Application of a three-dimensional numerical model to Lake Vostok:AnAntarctic subglacial lake. Geophysical Research Letters. 2001;28(3):531–534. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GL012107

49. Fernando H.J., Smith D. Vortex structures in geophysical convection. European Journal of Mechanics-B/Fluids/. 2001;20(4):437–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0997-7546(01)01129-3

50. Wells M.G., Wettlaufer J.S. Circulation in Lake Vostok: a laboratory analogue study. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008;35(3):L03501. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032162

51. Petit J.R. Geophysical, geochemical, glaciological and energy balance model constraints to the Lake Vostok. Data of Glaciological Studies. 2005;97:91–100.

52. Thoma M., Grosfeld K. Mayer C. Modelling mixing and circulation in subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica. Ocean Dynamics. 2007;57(6):531–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-007-0110-9

53. Thoma M., Mayer C., Grosfeld K. Sensitivity of subglacial Lake Vostok’s flow regime on environmental parameters. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2008;269(1–2):242–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.023

54. Determann J., Gerdes R. Melting and freezing beneath ice shelves: implications from a three-dimensional ocean-circulation model. Annals of Glaciology. 1994;20:413–419. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500016785

55. Williams M.J.M., Warner R.C., Budd W.F. The effects of ocean warming on melting and ocean circulation under the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica. Annals of Glaciology. 1998;27:75–80. https://doi.org/10.3189/1998AoG27-1-75-80

56. Gerdes R., Determann J., Grosfeld K. Ocean circulation beneath Filchner‐Ronne Ice Shelf from three‐dimensional model results. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 1999;104(C7): 15827–15842.

57. Walsh D. A note on eastern-boundary intensification of flow in Lake Vostok. Ocean Modelling. 2002;4(2):207–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1463-5003(01)00018-X

58. Thoma M., Grosfeld K., Mayer C., Pattyn F. Interaction between ice sheet dynamics and subglacial lake circulation: A coupled modelling approach. Cryosphere. 2010;4(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-1-2010

59. Kazko G.V. On the modelling of subglacial Lake Vostok circulation (Central Antarctica). Problems of Arctic and Antarctic = Arctic and Antarctic Research. 2009;81(1):138–145. (In Russ.)

60. Kazko G.V., Savatyugin L.M., Sokratova I.N. Modeling of water circulation in the antarctic subglacial Lake Vostok. Ice and Snow. 2012;52(4):86–91. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.15356/2076-6734-2012-4-86-91

61. Kazko G.V. Estimates of some parameters of lake Vostok circulation, found with a two-dimensional nonhydrostatic model. Physics of vibrations. 2001;9(3):182–188.

62. Mayer C., Grosfeld K., Siegert M.J. Salinity impact on water flow and lake ice in Lake Vostok, Antarctica. Geophysical Research Letters. 2003;30(14):1767. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017380

63. Filina I.Y., Blankenship D.D., Thoma M., Lukin V. V., Masolov V. N., Sen M.K. New 3D bathymetry and sediment distribution in Lake Vostok: Implication for pre-glacial origin and numerical modeling of the internal processes within the lake. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2008;276(1):106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.09.012

64. Kwok R., Siegert M.J., Carsey F.D. Ice motion over lake Vostok, Antarctica: Constraints on inferences regarding the accreted ice. Journal of Glaciology. 2000;46(155):689–694. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781832710

65. Mayer C., Siegert M.J. Numerical modelling of ice-sheet dynamics across the Vostok subglacial lake, central East Antarctica. Journal of Glaciology. 2000;46(153):197–205. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781832981

66. Pattyn F. A new three-dimensional higher-order thermomechanical ice sheet model: Basic sensitivity, ice stream development, and ice flow across subglacial lakes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 2003;108(B8):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002jb002329

67. Pattyn F. Investigating the stability of subglacial lakes with a full Stokes ice-sheet model. Journal of Glaciology. 2008;54(185):353–361. https://doi.org/10.3189/002214308784886171

68. Pattyn F., de Smedt B. Souchez R. Influence of subglacial Vostok lake on the regional ice dynamics of the Antarctic ice sheet: A model study. Journal of Glaciology. 2004;50(171):583– 589. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756504781829765

69. Couston L.-A., Siegert M. Dynamic flows create potentially habitable conditions in Antarctic subglacial lakes. Science Advanced. 2021;7(8):eabc3972.

70. Zotikov I.A., Duxbury N.S. On an genesis of the Vostok Lake (Antarctica). Reports of the Academy of Sciences. 2000;374(6):824–826. (In Russ.)

71. Vasiliev N.I., Leitchenkov G.L., Zagrivny E.A. Prospects of obtaining samples of bottom sediments from subglacial lake Vostok. Journal of Mining Institute. 2017;224:199–208. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.18454/PMI.2017.2.199